Disability History, Culture, and Justice

Below is a summary of key moments in disability history and the fight for disability rights in the United States for the past 200+ years.

For a more detailed description of disability history, you can read this narrative, or see the Resources section.

• Early views on disabilities and support systems
  In early America, individuals with disabilities were often treated with pity and relied on family care, if possible. Outside family support, towns built almshouses or placed people in poor farms. Despite these challenges, many individuals with disabilities worked, had families, and participated in their communities. Major milestones for the deaf and blind communities occurred in the early 1800s, with the founding of the American School for the Deaf in 1817 and Perkins School for the Blind in 1829, both focused on vocational training. By the late 19th century, such institutions were widespread but segregated by race.
• Disability and slavery
  Slavery had a profound impact on disabled individuals, particularly the enslaved, many of whom acquired disabilities due to abuse. Harriet Tubman, for instance, suffered epileptic seizures from a slaveholder’s injury. Proslavery advocates also falsely claimed that Black people’s perceived intellectual impairments justified their enslavement. In the 1840s and 1850s, Cartwright argued that any enslaved person who tried to escape was “crazy,” labeling this as a mental disorder called drapetomania , which he believed could be “cured” through harsh punishment, including beatings and amputation.
• Moral reform and advocacy in the 19th century
  The nineteenth century saw moral reformers like Samuel Gridley Howe and Dorothea Dix advocate for better treatment of people with disabilities. Dix’s campaign led to an Asylum Bill in 1854, though it was vetoed by President Franklin Pierce, who opposed federal government involvement. The Civil War marked a shift, with hospitals and soldiers’ homes built for veterans. However, these institutions often suffered from neglect and overcrowding.
• The eugenics movement and its impact
  In 1882, the Immigration Act excluded disabled individuals from naturalization because of fears that they would be unable to care for themselves without government support. The 1927 Buck v. Bell case legalized the sterilization of institutionalized individuals. Eugenics was a commonly accepted means of protecting society from the offspring of individuals deemed inferior or dangerous, such as the poor and the disabled. The eugenics movement also targeted the Deaf community, and the consequences of oralism in the 19th Century led to banning sign language in many schools. Sign language was marginalized because of the belief that signing set the Deaf apart from society and prevented assimilation, but Deaf leaders like George Veditz worked to preserve it.
• The rise of disability advocacy and the modern disability rights movement
  In the 20th century, disability advocacy grew, with organizations like Easterseals and the American Foundation for the Blind emerging. Disabled individuals began taking leadership roles, with figures like Dr. Jacobus tenBroek of the National Organization of the Blind emphasizing collective solidarity. Post-World War II, disability activism gained momentum, particularly in Berkeley, California. In 1971, the first Independent Living Center was established, advocating for the right of disabled individuals to live independently. Parents of children with disabilities also demanded access to education, further advancing the movement’s reach and impact.
• Section 504 and the Rehabilitation Act
  The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 was the first comprehensive federal disability legislation. However, Section 504, which prohibited discrimination in federally funded programs, was not signed into law until 1977. A 26-day sit-in by disability activists at the Health, Education, and Welfare Federal Building in San Francisco led to the signing of Section 504, marking a significant shift in how society viewed and treated disabled people. Support from César Chávez, Brad Lomax, and the Black Panther Party highlighted cross-movement solidarity.
• Legal progress and education
  In the 1970s and 1980s, legal victories expanded opportunities for disabled people in education and employment, including the 1971 PARC v. Pennsylvania case and the Education for Handicapped Children Act (1975). The 1972 Mills v. Board of Education ruling further affirmed that students with disabilities are entitled to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE). Advocacy for accessible public transit grew with groups like American Disabled for Attendant Programs Today (ADAPT). Key legislation also included the Rehabilitation Act Amendments (1978), which created Independent Living Centers; the Air Carrier Access Act (1986), requiring airlines to accommodate disabled passengers; and the Fair Housing Amendments Act (1988), which strengthened housing protections and accessibility in new buildings.
• The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
  The ADA, passed in 1990, banned disability discrimination in employment, government, public accommodations, transportation, and telecommunications. The disability rights movement, bolstered by campaigns like Deaf President Now in 1988 and the Capitol Crawl in 1990, led to its passage. The ADA marked a milestone in legal rights for people with disabilities.
• Continuing the fight disability justice and modern activism
  The ADA revolutionized accessibility, and the 1999 Olmstead v. L.C. Supreme Court decision affirmed that unjustified segregation is discriminatory, enabling disabled people to live in their communities. Activists continue to push for essential services like Medicare and Medicaid and to address issues such as marriage’s impact on disability benefits. The Disability justice movement builds on this activism by connecting disability discrimination to other forms of oppression, particularly focusing on marginalized groups like disabled Black people, disabled people of color, immigrants, Indigenous individuals, LGBTQ individuals, and those experiencing homelessness or incarceration. This movement recognizes that the ADA does not fully meet the needs of those at the intersection of disability and other marginalized identities.

Disability justice emerged to expand on the disability rights movement by addressing its limitations, including its primary focus on legal equality and view of disability as a single issue. Below is a brief overview of disability justice and some of its central concerns.

For more information on disability justice and its principles, see the Resources section.

• What is disability justice?
  While the disability rights movement fought for essential legal protections like the ADA, disability justice recognizes that true liberation requires addressing the multiple and overlapping forms of oppression that disabled people face, including racism, colonialism, capitalism, heteropatriarchy, and ableism.
• What does disability justice do?
  It shifts the conversation from solely legal rights to collective care, interdependence, and the leadership of those most impacted — particularly disabled people of color, queer and trans disabled people, immigrants, and others at the margins of both disability and mainstream social justice movements.
• What is the history of disability justice?
  The term “disability justice” was coined by the Disability Justice Collective in 2005, which included members of Sins Invalid, a performance project that explores disability arts and culture. Many of these activists are disabled, queer, people of color who aim to create a more inclusive, holistic framework that focuses on liberation for all marginalized groups.
• The 10 principles of disability justice
  The framework of disability justice, as defined by Sins Invalid, is guided by ten core principles. The principles emphasize an intersectional approach, and they call for collective access and solidarity, in order to ensure that systems benefit everyone, not just individuals. Leadership should come from those most impacted by oppression, and communities must prioritize sustainability, interdependence, and mutual support. The principles advocate for cross-movement solidarity, honoring disability as a cultural identity, and acknowledging the complexity and wholeness of disabled people’s lives.

Disability culture is a rich and diverse expression of identity, pride, and community. It often rejects the medical model, which views disability as something to be fixed, and instead empowers disabled people to embrace their identities and resist the ableism that has historically marginalized them.

Below is a brief overview of different components of disability culture.

• Disability across communities
  Disability is experienced differently across various cultural, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups. Different cultural perspectives shape how disability is understood and perceived by society. For instance, Deaf culture, centered around American Sign Language (ASL), has its own community, traditions, and values. ASL is not just a tool for communication but also a key part of Deaf identity. Disability in immigrant communities may also be influenced by historical or cultural factors such as colonialism or migration, further highlighting the intersections of disability with race, class, and immigration status.
• Disability pride
  Disability pride is central to disability culture. It promotes the idea that disability is not something to be ashamed of or hidden, but an identity to be embraced. Disability pride helps dismantle harmful stereotypes and offers a sense of community and belonging. Initiatives like the Disability Visibility Project, founded by Alice Wong, amplify disabled voices by sharing personal stories, making the community more visible and fostering solidarity.
• Disability culture and art
  Art plays a critical role in disability culture, serving as both a form of personal expression and collective resistance. Organizations like Sins Invalid use art to challenge conventional ideas about beauty, ability, and worth, celebrating disabled bodies and experiences. Language is a big part of this — disabled communities reclaim words like “disabled” and “neurodivergent” to build pride and push back against stigma. Signed languages like ASL are rich expressions of culture, influencing performance, poetry and storytelling. And accessibility itself — through captions, audio descriptions, and plain language — is an art form that ensures that disabled people are included and valued. Through creative expression, disabled artists resist ableism and cultural invisibility, claiming their space in society and asserting that disability is a natural part of the human experience.

When incorporating disability communities into your organization’s work, keep the following considerations in mind:

• Ensure representation of diverse disabled communities
  Ensure the representation of diverse disabled communities, including disabled people of color, LGBTQ+, immigrants, and other marginalized groups, at all levels in your organization. This includes patrons, artists, staff, advisors, leadership, and beyond. Focusing on representation empowers a more comprehensive approach to disability justice, and it also fosters greater diversity and richness in perspective, experience, and leadership.
• Challenge traditional narratives of beauty, ability, and disability
  Collaborate with disabled artists and leaders to challenge societal standards of beauty and ability by framing disability not as a medical condition but as a rich culture with unique stories, experiences, and aesthetics. Art becomes a tool of resistance, allowing disabled people to reclaim their bodies and narratives, while also normalizing disability and pushing back against harmful stereotypes.
• Foster advocacy, community engagement, and social justice collaboration
  Provide platforms for disabled artists to advocate for change and raise awareness through their work. Engage with disabled communities in co-creation and feedback, ensuring their voices are respected. Additionally, recognize that disability justice is deeply connected to other social justice movements (e.g., racial equality, LGBTQ+ rights) and partner with organizations working to dismantle systemic discrimination, fostering an intersectional approach to justice.
• Acknowledge and educate staff on disability history and justice
  Ensure your staff and leadership receive training on disability history, culture, and justice to contextualize your accessibility work and enhance cultural humility. This helps create a more inclusive environment that recognizes the ongoing struggles and contributions of disabled communities.